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Models for Understanding Intercultural
Communications
Edward Hall’s
Intercultural Communication Theory
Direct
Verbal Style ( Low-context Culture)
1.
The situational context is not emphasized.
2.
Important information is usually carried in the in explicit verbal
messages.
3.
Self-expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent speech are valued.
4.
People tend to directly express their opinions and tend to persuade
others
to accept their viewpoints.
Indirect
Verbal Style (High-context Culture)
1.
Explicit verbal messages are not emphasized.
2.
important information is usually carried in the contextual cues (e.g.
place,
time, situation, and relationship).
3.
Harmony is highly valued, with a tendency towards using ambiguous
language
and keeping silent in interactions.
4.
People tend to talk around the point, and avoid saying no directly to
others.
(Hall, 1976)
Chung’s
Model for Understanding Cross-cultural Communication.
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Low-context
Culture
1.
Overtly displays meanings through direct communication forms
2.
Values individualism.
3.
Tends to develop transitory personal relationship
4.Emphasize
linear logic
5.
Values direct verbal interaction and is less able to read nonverbal
expressions
6.
Tends to use “logic to present ideas.
7.
Tends to emphasize highly structured messages, give details, and place
great stress on words and technical signs.
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High-context Culture
1.
Implicitly embeds meanings at different levels
of the sociocultural
context.
2.
Values group sense.
3.
Tends to take time to cultivate and establish
a permanent personal
relationship.
4.Emphasizes
spiral logic.
5.Values
indirect verbal interaction and is more
able to read nonverbal expressions
6.Tends
to use “feeling” in
expression.
7.
Tends to give simple, ambiguous,
noncontexting message.
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Application of the Models to Technical Communication:
Using Hofstede’s Model as an Example:
(Quoted
from “A Conceptual Framework for International Web Design” by Zahedi et
Al )
a. Power Distance:
The extent to which the less powerful members of
institutions and organizations within a country expect
and accept that power is
distributed unequally.
Small power distance orientation implies a consultative
style of decision-on making, involving more feedback,
creativity, and
flexibility among managers and members.
Large power distance implies that decision makers are
expected to be more autocratic
and paternalistic and are expected to have special
privileges and status symbols that announce
their leadership role to others
while subordinates tend to be dependent, preferring and expecting
a boss to make
decisions autocratically.
In a country with a large power distance, we might expect
written communications to contain references
to the status, and the authority of
leaders, professional expertise, and highly respected figure in the scientific
and educational communities.
Readers used to a large power distance expect
communications to be one-way, detailed
exact, and follow literally, reflecting the authoritative
relationships set up in the home or workplace, and schools.
The
U.S., Britain, Sweden (scores 31), and Denmark have a small power distance.
Malaysia
and Indonesia have a large power distance.
America found that detailed narratives with literal,
one-way scripts worked more effectively for directing employees
than abstract,
hierarchical and analytically structured documents that call for interpretation.
Therefore, web
documents designed for users from cultures with a large power
distance will be more effective if they have
references to characteristics associated with large
power distance such as authority, power, expertise and
wealth.
b. Collectivism vs. Individualism
While individualism refers to societies in which the ties
between individuals are loose: everyone is expected
to look after himself or
herself and his or her family, collectivism pertains to societies where people
from birth
onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive groups which throughout
the people’s life protect them in
exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Individualism emphasizes personal right, own opinion, freedom,
innovation,
self expression, etc. while collectivism collaboration, community,
shared interest, harmony, tradition, we-relation,
and trust.
U.S.(IDV91), and Sweden (71) rank high in individualism ;
Asian countries and Arabic speaking countries are opposite.
Web documents designed for high level of collectivism
would be more effective if they promote group cohesion and
not individual
interest.
c. Masculinity vs. Femininity
Masculinity pertains to societies in which social gender
roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive,
tough, and focused
on material success, while women are supposed to be modest, gentle, and
concerned with the
quality of life. Masculinity stresses strength,
competitiveness, ambitiousness, aggressiveness, and confrontation.
Japan, Austria, and Venezuela (Mas.)
Denmark, Netherlands and Norway (Fem.)
Web documents designed for users with masculine culture
would be more effective if they are associated with
characteristics such as
success, winning, strength, and assertiveness.
d. Uncertainty Avoidance
This refers to the extent to which the members of a culture
feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situation.
The degree varies from
strong to weak. The feelings can be
nervous stress and the need for predictability and
both written and unwritten
rules.
Greece, Japan, Germany and Portugal (high); Britain, U.S.,
Sweden, and Denmark (low)
Web documents
designed for users from high uncertainty avoidance culture will be more
effective if they
refer to precise and detailed information, to relevant rules
and regulations, and avoided emphasizing novelty
and deviating from the norm.
e.
Long-term vs. Short term Orientation
Aspects associated with long term orientation include:
adapting tradition to modern perspectives, respecting social
status and
obligation within limits, being thrift and sparing of resources, persevering
towards slow results, willing
subordination to a purpose and respecting demands
of virtue.
Aspects associated with short term orientation include:
respecting tradition, social standing, regardless of cost;
keeping up with
Joneses even if it means overspending ,
expecting
quick results, saving face; possessing the truth.
China, Japan, and Brazil, (LTO) Germany, US, Britain and
Pakistan (low)
Web documents designed for LTO users will be more
effective if they emphasize perseverance, future orientation,
resources for
conservation, respect for demands of virtue, and de-emphasize truth and falsity
as a strictly binary,
and black-and-white relationship.
f. Polychronic vs. Monochronic Time Orientation
Polychronic cultures prefer doing many things at a time,
and stress involvement with people and completion of
transactions rather than
adherence to schedules, and emphasize commitment to people and lifetime
relationship
and rely on the situational context of the message.
Monochronic cultures prefer doing one thing at a time,
compartmentalize relationships and tasks according
strict time schedules, value
promptness, and adherence to plans, and rely on communications most of the
information must be included in the message itself with details spelled out
clearly.
Mediterranean, Latin America, Arabic, and Asian countries
are polychronic.
North America and European countries (Germany and
Switzerland) as monochronic.
Web documents designed for users from polychronic
cultures will be more effective if they have high contextual
personal
information, tend to build lifelong relationships, offer a variety of views,
issues, topics (not consistent sets of
views, etc.) and are oriented towards
people and human relationships (as opposed to tasks and achievements).
Non-verbal
communication (Useful when interviewing or doing oral presentation)
Points for Attention:
Kinesics:
Body
movement and activities in human communication.
Specific points: emblem, illustrators, regulators, affect
displays, and adapter.
Use
examples to explain.
Proxemics:
Use
of space in communication
Specific points: Fixed-feature space, semifixed space,
informal space.
Chronemics: Use of time in communication
Specific
points: Past-oriented culture, Present-oriented culture, and future-oriented
Culture; polychronic and monochronic.
Paralanguage: Use of vocal signs in communication.
Specific points: Voice quality, vocal characteristics, and
vocal qualifiers.
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